Free Essays on Marquis De Condorcet

Buddhist Education in Vietnam Free Essays

Practically 85% of the whole populace of Vietnam is Buddhist . The principle explanation behind this immense acknowledgment of Buddhism is its initial passage in Vietnam. Buddhism entered Vietnam in the start of second century. We will compose a custom article test on Buddhist Education in Vietnam or on the other hand any comparative point just for you Request Now This was the Common Era and can be called as the principal period of the Buddhist instruction in Vietnam . The absolute first Buddhist instruction was given by a Taoist named Meou-Po, who later changed over to Buddhism . As indicated by numerous history specialists, even before this Taoist, some type of Buddhist training could be seen when the Chinese evangelists came to Vietnam . The Chinese ministers came in Vietnam during the standard of Si-Nhiep. Afterward, two Indian priests additionally originated from India to Vietnam, so as to rehearse and lecture Buddhism. Mama Ha Ky Vuc and Khau Da La remained in Vietnam for quite a while, later Khau Da La left though Ma Ha Ky Vuc remained. Mama Ha Ky Vuc was an exceptionally strict man and used to quick for a few days. As indicated by him this filtered his body and soul. These two Buddhist priests originally came to Northern Vietnam, which was called as Giao-Chi around then. Mau-Bac, a Chinese Buddhist later came to Vietnam, so as to lecture his religion. Around then China was the focal point of a genuine political clash, thus numerous researchers so as to learn and lecture settled, came to Vietnam. This was an advancement for the Buddhism. These were the principal individuals ever to get Buddhism in Vietnam. They were displaced people from China and Pilgrims from India. As time passed by Buddhism turned out to be increasingly acknowledged and most rehearsed religion in Vietnam. Start OF BUDDHIST EDUCATION A Hindu value, Gautama who didn't care for the possibility of Hindu position framework, was the organizer of Buddhism. Gautama didn't accept that any man could be better than the other and as Hinduism Brahmans are viewed as unrivaled, he left this religion . Gautama had spent numerous years meandering and pondering. At long last he discovered responses to every one of his inquiries and thus found the way of edification, â€Å"nirvana†. As per Buddhism, nirvana is the way to interminable tranquility. It is liberated from the pattern of birth, passing and resurrection. Besides, an individual will accomplish salvation in the event that he has faith in the four honorable realities. These four honorable facts are that a man endures in the entirety of his successive lives; the explanation behind his sufferings is his needs for natural things, when the individual liberates himself from all the needs of natural things he at that point accomplishes redemption. The last respectable truth says that an individual can accomplish liberation by following the eightfold honorable way . So how did Buddhism really spread? During the time Si-Nhiep managed Giao-Chi, it was considered as a protected spot. Mau-Bac came to Vietnam searching for harmony and peacefulness. In the wake of coming to Vietnam, he contemplated Buddhism from an Indian priest named Ksudra . Mama Ha Ky Vuc who additionally came to Vietnam got along with Mau-Bac and began lecturing their religion. Ksudra additionally began helping them, henceforth individuals in Vietnam, who never comprehended what Buddhism was, began learning and tolerating it. These were the absolute first individuals to begin lecturing and educating Buddhism. Their instructing is the early type of lessons found in Vietnam. After these, numerous Buddhist priests came to Vietnam. Khang Tang Hoi and Cuong Luong Lau were two priests who had a great deal of effect. They made an interpretation of numerous Buddhist books into Chinese. As Vietnamese culture around then was affected a great deal by Chinese and Chinese was the official language utilized , henceforth interpreting these books had a ton of effect to individuals who couldn't peruse or compose different dialects . Periods OF VIETNAMESE BUDDHISM The historical backdrop of Buddhist training in Vietnam can be concentrated by partitioning it into four separate stages or periods. †The arrangement of Buddhism in Vietnam. This began from the BC and endured till the finish of Chinese domain †Climax of Buddhism. Buddhism was at its top during the autonomy †The debauchery after the Le Dynasty †Revival period. This began in the start of the twentieth century and has not finished at this point. The period before the Common Era establishes the framework for the start and improvement of Buddhist instruction in Vietnam. It was when Siddhartha Gautama, who will later achieve illumination and will be called as ‘Buddha’ was conceived. As he was conceived in India, Indians were the first to learn Buddhism. Later when Buddhism came to China, numerous Chinese priests went to Vietnam so as to spread Buddhism. Be that as it may, it accepted that the Chinese and Indian shippers came to Vietnam for exchanging. They carried priests with them saying that the priests were the â€Å"calmer of the sea† These priests began lecturing their religion in Vietnam. It was simple for them to show their religion to numerous individuals one after another, as Luy-Lau, later known as Ha-Bac was the focal point of all exchanging exercises. All the shippers who came here to exchange, and dealers who were going among India and China, halted here to rest, thusly, priests had the option to spread their religion without any problem. Numerous minister exercises were begun accordingly. Cloisters were assembled and Buddhism got significant. This was the first run through ever throughout the entire existence of Vietnam, that cloisters were manufactured . The following time frame or stage end up being best for Vietnamese Buddhism. In this period Buddhist investigations were at their pinnacle and numerous celebrated individuals and rulers changed over to this religion. It was when King Dinh Tien Hoang came in to control. Buddhism has its own chain of command of priests and ministers who were acknowledged by the court. Buddhism was currently bolstered by the illustrious court and this helped numerous positive changes to occur. Buddhists were currently regarded and were considered as educated individuals. They were asked counsel by the regal court and the rulers before taking choices. This helped them engage in numerous political and strict choices and henceforth giving numerous choices to be taken by them. This period genuinely end up being the best for Buddhist investigations and it got one of the most transcendent religions. After this, numerous rulers and rulers changed over to Buddhism. Numerous laws came into training in this time, which were affected by Buddhism, and consequently were supportive of the Buddhists. Van Hanh turned into a Buddhist in this period. He is known as the contemplation ace and has impacted numerous individuals to change over to Buddhism. Any ruler who was not Buddhists was at any rate the supporter of Buddhism and this was a positive point for the Buddhists. In 1010 A. D, right around eight religious communities were worked in Ha Bac. Every other religious community and Buddhist sanctuaries were likewise fixed. Tripitaka writings, which were in China at first, were gotten Vietnam. A great many Buddha sculptures and works of art were made and set up. Celebrations were set up. Numerous new religious communities, for example, Sung Kharh cloister and religious community at Mount Ba were constructed. In 1086 A. d Dai Lam religious community was worked in Ha Bac. Later in 1118 A. D Thien Phat was fabricated which had just about 1,000 Buddha sculptures . BUDDHIST STUDIES The whole Buddhist training originates from the investigations of Buddha, who is the incomparable educator. The entirety of the investigations root from saddha, which is the confidence in triple Gem. Depdnding upon these investigations the understudies are instructed by the five standards. The understudies should know the guidelines, their explanation and their machine in day by day lives. Above all, they ought to value every one of these standards and put stock in them. The understudies should comprehend what is liberality and selflessness. These are basic components that help the understudies defeat their common wants, their self-centeredness and avarice. These five good guidelines are reliant on one another. An understudy can pick up by suta, which is by broad perusing of Buddhism writings. As per Buddhist examinations the information on an individual is reliant on his inside conviction of truth I. e. Dhamma. Quiet and knowledge are the two principle components of any Buddhist educating. In Buddhist instruction undertakings and shrewdness are subject to one another. An understudy can accomplish insight by profound examination, conversation and knowledge. This insight was the essential instruments which lead Buddha to salvation. This intelligence is the crown of all instructions of Buddhism. Without astuteness, training is deficient. Prior to French, individuals were picked dependent on their training. These were authorities known as â€Å"mandarins†. Learning was significant in those occasions. It was instruction as well as it lead an individual to scholarly understanding, social standing, riches and influence. Buddhism came straightforwardly from India, subsequently there are numerous words in Vietnamese Buddhism which are impacted or are taken legitimately from India. The word Buddha is likewise taken all things considered. Be that as it may, as the Vietnamese culture is impacted a great deal from the Chinese, henceforth when Chinese priests came to Vietnam, the word Buddha was supplanted by the word Phat. Back then, Buddhism in Vietnam was impacted by Theravada Buddhism. It was viewed as religion which helped great individuals and rebuffed the terrible. It was hard to show Buddhism around then as almost no writing was accessible. Vietnamese had no composed content; thus a couple of interpretations were made in Chinese. The period somewhere in the range of 544 and 602 was a free time and was useful in spreading Buddhism The most effective method to refer to Buddhist Education in Vietnam, Papers

Political Interactions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Political Interactions - Essay Example While business corporates are keen on their business development and exercises, the administration is keen on working to the greatest advantage of the general public through executing business guidelines, ecological security just as standard in rehearses. Basically, organizations and the administration go about as a significant wellspring of the exchange between the private and open area. This brings a solid cooperation between the business corporates and the legislature through approaches. This points towards tending to issues about quality creation and condition insurance. Since a portion of the issues can get clashing between the administration and the organizations, it expects them to campaign together in the advantage of society as a rule. In conditions of worldwide monetary emergency, the administration should consistently mediate to strain off the national obligation and urge improved business condition to the ventures. Every one of these intercessions demonstration in light o f a legitimate concern for the business substances by guaranteeing their victories. In any case, the business corporates must go along by guaranteeing direction and serious business ideas. These incorporate satisfying the advanced market requests of the normal items and administrations, improving the nature of items and utilizing the most current data and computerized innovation underway. There are different courses through which the organizations deliberately use campaigning to impact the results of the approaches detailed to direct business. As indicated by Karthik, Sandra, and Ian (2015), a few organizations ventures are engaged with financing of just procedures as a methods for campaigning for the plan of approaches that demonstration best to their greatest advantage.

Real Time Pcr free essay sample

Test BASED DETECTION SYSTEMS14 Hybridization tests (likewise called FRET probes)16 MELTING CURVE ANALYSIS16 Multiplex constant PCR18 APPLICATIONS OF REAL TIME PCR18 GENE EXPRESSION ANALYSIS18 SNP GENOTYPING19 HIV DETECTION19 CYSTIC FIBROSIS (CF) DETECTION:20 THE ADVANTAGES OF REAL-TIME PCR20 THE DISADVANTAGES21 REFRENCES21 REAL TIME PCR TRADITIONAL PCR The polymerase chain response (PCR) is one of the most remarkable innovations in atomic science. Utilizing PCR, explicit successions inside a DNA or cDNA layout can be replicated, or â€Å"amplified†, numerous thousand-to a millionfold. In customary (endpoint) PCR, location and quantitation of the enhanced succession are performed toward the finish of the response after the last PCR cycle, and include post-PCR investigation, for example, gel electrophoresis and picture examination. Ongoing QUANTITATIVE PCR (qPCR) continuously quantitative PCR (qPCR), the measure of PCR item is estimated at each cycle. This capacity to screen the response during its exponential stage empowers clients to decide the underlying measure of focus with incredible accuracy. WHAT’S WRONG WITH AGAROSE GELS? * Poor exactness. * Low affectability. Short unique range lt; 2 logs. * Low goals. * Non-computerized. * Size-based segregation just * Ethidium bromide recoloring isn't exceptionally quantitative REAL TIME PCR VS PCR . Essential PRINCIPLE Quantitative PCR is did in aâ thermal cyclerâ with the ability to enlighten each example with a light emission of a predefined frequency and distinguish the fluorescence radiated by the excitedâ fluorochrome. The warm cycler is likewise ready to quickly warmth and chill tests along these lines exploiting the physicochemical properties of theâ nucleic acids and DNA polymerase. The PCR procedure for the most part comprises of a progression of temperature changes that are rehashed 25 †multiple times, these cycles regularly comprise of three phases: the first, at around 95  °C, permits the partition of the nucleic acid’s twofold chain; the second, at a temperature of around 50-60  °C, permits the arrangement of the preliminaries with the DNA template;â the third at between 68 72  °C, encourages theâ polymerizationâ carried out by the DNA polymerase continuously PCR, * the measure of DNA is estimated after each cycle by the utilization of fluorescent markers that are fused into the PCR item. The expansion in fluorescent sign is legitimately corresponding to the quantity of PCR item particles (amplicons) produced in the exponential period of the response. * Fluorescent correspondents utilized incorporate twofold abandoned DNA (dsDNA)- restricting colors, or color atoms joined to PCR preliminaries or tests that are fused into the item during enhancement. * The adjustment in fluorescence through the span of the response is estimated by an instrument that consolidates warm cycling with examining capacity. By plotting fluorescence against the cycle number, the constant PCR instrument creates an enhancement plot that speaks to the aggregation of item over the term of the whole PCR response (Figure 1). Figure 1â€Amplification plots are made when the fluorescent sign from each example is plotted against cycle number; accordingly, intensification plots speak to the collection of item over the term of the constant PCR try. The examples being enhanced in this model are a weakening arrangement of the format. Kinds OF PCR Quantitative PCR| Qualitative qPCR| A particular or vague discovery science permits the measurement ofthe intensified item. | In subjective qPCR, the objective is to distinguish the nearness or nonattendance of a specific succession. | The sum distinguished at one point of the run is legitimately identified with theinitial measure of focus in the sample| For infection sub-composing and bacterial species recognizable proof. Can likewise be utilized for allelic segregation between wild kind and freak, between various SNPs or between various joining structures. | normal pplications of quantitative PCR are quality articulation investigation, pathogen identification/measurement and microRNA quantification| Different fluorophores can be utilized for the two alleles, and the proportion of the fluorophores signals connects to the related measure of one structure contrasted with the other one. | Quantitative PCR programming utilizes the exponential period of PCR for evaluation. | Specific loc ation strategies, for example, Double-Dye test frameworks are all the more regularly utilized for theseApplications| Overview of continuous PCR Real-time PCR is a variety of the standard PCR procedure used to measure DNA or RNA in an example. Utilizing grouping explicit groundworks, the overall number of duplicates of a specific DNA or RNA succession can be resolved.. Evaluation of enhanced item is acquired utilizing fluorescent tests or fluorescent DNA restricting colors and constant PCR instruments that measure fluorescence while performing temperature changes required for the PCR cycles. qPCR STEPS There are three significant advances that make up a qPCR response. Responses are for the most part run for 40 cycles. 1. Denaturationâ€The temperature ought to be suitable to the polymerase picked (typically 95 °C). The denaturation time can be expanded if format GC content is high. 2. Annealingâ€Use suitable temperatures dependent on the determined softening temperature (Tm) of the preliminaries (5 °C beneath the Tm of the preliminary). 3. Extensionâ€At 70â€72 °C, the movement of the DNA polymerase is ideal, and preliminary augmentation happens at paces of up to 100 bases for each second. At the point when an amplicon in qPCR is little, this progression is frequently joined with the toughening step utilizing 60 °C as the temperature. Rudiments OF REAL TIME PCR Baseline †The benchmark stage contains all the intensification that is beneath the degree of identification of the continuous instrument. Limit †where the edge and the enhancement plot meet characterizes CT. Can be set physically/consequently CT †(cycle limit) the cycle number where the fluorescence passes the edge Rn †(Rn-gauge) NTC †no layout control Rn is plotted against cycle numbers to create the enhancement bends and gives the CT esteem. ONE-STEP OR TWO-STEP REACTION qRT-PCR can be one stage or two stage. 1. Two-advance qRT-PCR Two-advance qRT-PCR begins with the opposite interpretation of either all out RNA or poly(A)+ RNA into cDNA utilizing a converse transcriptase (RT). This first-strand cDNA blend response can be prepared utilizing arbitrary hexamers, oligo(dT), or quality explicit preliminaries (GSPs). To give an equivalent portrayal of all objectives continuously PCR applications and to maintain a strategic distance from the 3? predisposition of oligo(dT), it is generally suggested that irregular hexamers or a blend of oligo(dT) and arbitrary hexamers are utilized. The temperature utilized for cDNA combination relies upon the RT compound picked. Following the primary strand combination response, the cDNA is moved to a different cylinder for the qPCR response. By and large, just 10% of the primary strand response is utilized for each qPCR. . One-advance qRT-PCR One-advance qRT-PCR consolidates the main strand cDNA combination response and qPCR response in a similar cylinder, streamlining response arrangement and lessening the chance of defilement. Quality specifi c groundworks (GSP) are required. This is on the grounds that utilizing oligo(dT) or irregular preliminaries will create vague items in the one-advance method and diminish the measure of result of intrigue. Diagram of qPCR and qRT-PCR parts This area gives a review of the significant response segments and parameters associated with constant PCR tests. * DNA polymerase One of the principle factors influencing PCR explicitness is the way that Taq DNA polymerase has leftover movement at low temperatures. Groundworks can strengthen vaguely to DNA, permitting the polymerase to integrate vague item. The issue of vague items coming about because of mispriming can be limited by utilizing a â€Å"hot-start† compound. Utilizing a hot-start compound guarantees that no dynamic Taq is available during response arrangement and the underlying DNA denaturation step. * Template Anywhere from 10 to 1,000 duplicates of layout nucleic corrosive ought to be utilized for every ongoing PCR response. This is equal to roughly 100 pg to 1 ? of genomic DNA, or cDNA, produced from 1 pg to 100 ng of complete RNA. Abundance format may build the measure of contaminants and diminish proficiency. On the off chance that the layout is RNA, care ought to be taken to lessen the risk of genomic DNA tainting. One alternative is to treat the layout with DNaseI. Ultrapure, flawless RNA is fundamental for full-length, top notch cDNA union and exact mRNA measurement. RNA ought to be without any RNase tainting, and aseptic conditions ought to be kept up. * Reverse transcriptase The converse transcriptase (RT) is as basic to the achievement of qRT-PCR as the DNA polymerase. It is critical to pick a RT that not just gives significant returns of full-length cDNA yet in addition has great action at high temperatures. High-temperature execution is likewise significant for handling RNA with auxiliary structure or when working with quality explicit groundworks (GSPs). * dNTPs It is suggested that both the dNTPs and the Taq DNA polymerase be bought from a similar merchant, as it isn't remarkable to see movements of one full limit cycle (Ct) in tests that utilize these things from independent sellers. * Magnesium focus In qPCR, magnesium chloride or magnesium sulfate is normally utilized at a fi nal convergence of 3 mM. This fixation functions admirably for most targets; be that as it may, the ideal magnesium focus may fluctuate somewhere in the range of 3 and 6 mM. * UNG The Uracil-N-Glycosylase is a catalyst that hydrolyses all single-abandoned and twofold abandoned DNA containing dUTPs. Therefore, if all PCR enhancements are acted within the sight of a dNTPs/dUTPs mix, via conveying an UNG step before each run it is conceivable to dispose of any past PCR item. * ROX Some thermocyclers require MasterMix containing ROX d

Simple Options for Stress Reduction

Simple Options for Stress Reduction Stress Management Management Techniques Print Ongoing Tools for Stress Reduction By Elizabeth Scott, MS twitter Elizabeth Scott, MS, is a wellness coach specializing in stress management and quality of life, and the author of 8 Keys to Stress Management. Learn about our editorial policy Elizabeth Scott, MS Updated on January 29, 2020 How Stress Impacts Your Health Overview Signs of Burnout Stress and Weight Gain Benefits of Exercise Stress Reduction Tips Self-Care Practices Mindful Living abu / Getty Images This site offers a wealth of information and resources on stress reduction. In order to help you feel supported (and avoid feeling overwhelmed) in your stress reduction efforts, I’ve compiled several different options to help you tailor your experience to your needs. This allows you to receive a little or a lot of information in convenient chunks, keeping you motivated so that stress reduction becomes a regular, simple part of your life. Try a few or all of the following options, and you’ll find it easier to maintain a less stressed lifestyle. Feedback Options If you’re interested in making your opinion part of the site, several fun options can allow you to make your voice heard: Email Me With Questions / IdeasHave a great idea for an article that you would love to see on my site? You can message me through  my Facebook page with your idea, and I’ll put it on my list of topics to cover. I try to write about issues that would be most helpful to people. When someone takes the time to write asking about a certain topic, that tells me that people are really passionate about it and want to know more. On Your Computer You can use computer options to stay connected to the site and get the most up-to-date information on stress reduction: BookmarkIf you find an article you like, just select ‘add bookmark’ on your browser so it’s easy to visit again.  This is a great option for when you find something youd like to read, but just dont have time to digest it at the moment, or when youve skimmed something and know that you may want to read more, but dont have time right then.  Its also helpful to create a collection of articles that can help you when you need them. Also, if you find an article thats particularly useful, you can refer back to it, again and again, this way.Social MediaUsing social media involvement for stress management is a great option because it reminds you of your stress management goals while youre relaxing or taking a break from work.  It also provides you with information that you can use in your life while you may already be looking for interesting things to read.  In other words, if you can get a steady stream of digestible information when and where youre already open to receiving it.There a re several options for getting involved in stress management resources through social media.  You can get daily  stress tips, some of which you cant get anywhere else, on Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, and Google.  (Im most active on Facebook and Twitter, but I update in all places!)Make Verywell Stress Management Your Home PageI add new articles often, and they show up first on my sites homepage. Make Verywells Stress Management page  your startup screen, and you can see what’s new on the site as the changes occur. This is a great way to stay up-to-date and keep stress management at the forefront of your awareness â€" a great way to start your day. Learn About Yourself This site is dedicated to helping you overcome the negative effects of stress through fun and informative articles as well as other means. The following are some other options that can provide insight into your own personality and lifestyle to help you address the stress in a way that’s tailored to your specific situation: TestsThe stress tests on this site are geared toward helping you discover more about yourself, learn about specific topics related to stress, and find targeted information to help you make changes that will bring less stress to your life. And they’re fun to take, too.PollsAs I mentioned above, viewing the results of the polls is a fun tool for self-reflection, and lets you know what other people are thinking and experiencing, both of which can be educational. With all the options available for ongoing stress reduction support, you should be able to find the perfect combination for your needs. I look forward to seeing more of you. Enjoy!

Integrate your views/ideas - 550 Words

Integrate your views/ideas (Essay Sample) Content: Students NameInstructors NameCourse NameDateThe Dilemma of Going to College One of the main reasons for pursuing college studies is to obtain the relevant skills which the employers require to increase ones chances of securing employment. I am pursuing a nursing program and I hope to secure employment particularly because of the increasing job opportunities for registered nurses. However, although for many people, going to college after high school can be a guarantee that they will be employed, others do not believe in going to college to become successful in life (Goshgarian Krueger 54). Some people have become successful despite that they did not attend college. The essay uses information various authors on College education such as, Christopher Seward (More Employers are Seeking Workers with College Degrees) and Gary Goshgarian and Kathleen Krueger (Dialogues: An Argument Rhetoric and Reader). The essay further uses material from Charles Murray (What's Wrong with Vocational School?) and George Leef (More College does not Beget more Economic Prosperity). Although college education present valued and preferred by employers thereby prompting many people to seek college education in their quest to become successful, there are those who have become successful without college education; an issue that does not guarantee that those without college education are bound to be successful. In my view, I believe that going to college is likely to increase the chances of one getting employed due to the changing trends in the job market. This is in-line with Sewards assertion that employers increasingly want smarter workers and are filling positions traditionally held by high school graduates with applicants who have college degrees, according to a recent study (para 1). According to Seward, a CareerBuilder survey of over 2, 600 recruiting managers found that more than 50% employers required candidates to have two-year associates degree or higher while 44% require four-year degree or higher (para 2). Seward further cites that 64% of the surveyed hiring managers cited that recruiting more educated employees leads to a higher work quality, 45% of employers cited an increased productivity, and 22% employers associated recruiting college graduates with an increase in revenues (para 7). From these statistics, it is evident that having a college degree increases the chances of an applicant being employed. However, I also believe that having a college degree is not necessarily an automatic guarantee that one would get employed or become successful in life. For example, Leef argues that there are many successful individuals without college degrees while many others with Bachelor of Arts degrees or even higher qualifications are struggling in low-paying jobs (26). According to Leef, more seat time, credits, and degrees do not automatically translate into more productive people (26). I also agree with Leefs assertion that formal education does not necessarily result into skills and knowledge that a person can use productively (26). This is because most employers today complain about lack of basic practical skills and knowledge even among those with college degrees. Despite Leefs assertion that one can succeed even without college degree, it would be wrong to believe in such opinion considering that very few people have succeeded in life without going to college or attaining college degrees. In fact, Leefs claim contrasts the huge number of people who have succeeded in life because they had college education, degree, or even higher qualification. Most of those who are educated are likely to secure employment opportunities and grow in their careers thereby succeeding in life. I agree with Murray belief that many people go to college to increase their possibility of making a better living; therefore, people require vocational training though it is considered second class (Para 6). Moreover, many people who are intellectuall y eligible to college do not want four-year college-level courses. Such people go to college merely because their parents are able to pay the fees and because of the fact that college is where other young people of...

Job stress - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 29 Words: 8841 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Chapter no. 2 2) A review of literature Job stress has been recognized as a serious and chronic cause of individual suffering, irritation, strain and discomforts. As a matter of fact little research work has so far been carried out on the topic of job stress in Pakistan. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Job stress" essay for you Create order On the other hand plenty of work has been done on the topic across the world particularly in the U.S.A and Europe. For the purpose of conducting review of relevant literature on the topic, the researcher was obliged to browse through Internet and to find relevant materials. The magnitude of research work done on job stress across the world and the quantum of data available on the topic on the Internet is phenomenal and is outside the scope of this chapter to incorporate it all. However an effort has been made to select a few closely related dissertations, reports and articles on the topic for review purpose. This review examines published evidences on the causes and effects of job stress, and the implications for nurses/employees in organisations. It is worth mentioning here that in todays dynamic world the nursing profession is considered to be full of stress. British Psychological Society, 1988 stated job stress as one of the top ten industrial diseases in the US. Willcox (1994), reported that atleast 25% of the employees are psychlogically stressed at any one time. It has serious implications for the health of the workers in the society as a whole. The Health of The Nation (HMSO, 1992) describes that this area needs to be addressed to promote the health of the workers (government documents 1992). Stress is one of the most inaccurate words in the scientific literature reported by williams (1994). The term sometimes indicates stressfull events and sometime indicate the effect of these events on work performance and sometime dis ordered health remarked by Maclean (1985). Marmot Et. Al 1987 reports that job stress is lack of understanding how work enviroment make a person ill. Job stress refer to broad class of problems indicated by Lazarus (1971) Any demand which atax the system, whatever it is, a physiological system, a social system or a psychological system, and the response of that system. There is greater consensus about the meaning and effect of job stress. WHO (1986) stated that stress is a dynamic state of mind characterized by reasonable harmony between a persons abilities, needs and expectations, and environmental demands and opportunities. Prof. Cox (1993) concentrates on the importance for general health of a state of balance between needs and demands, citing the Wo rld Health Organisations definition of well-being: Research study on job stress concludes; Hans Selye (1956) is considered as the father of stress research. The Stress of Life (1956), a book by Hans Seyle introduced the concept of stress in the public domain and his General Adaptation Syndrome [GAS] is a popular one amongst the research scholor of psychology and management. Stress a state, manifested by a specific syndrome of biological events Selye (1974). He argued that stress is not entirely a bad event. According to him stress is the reaction of the physical body toward a situation or event, which is demanding. Any kind of normal activity can produce considerable stress without causing any harmful effects (Selye, 1974), Selye 1982 clearly state that the non specific implication of any demand put on the body be its effect mental or somatic. The uncertainty that occurs at the organizational, unit, group, and individual levels. Uncertainty exists to the extent that knowledge about an event or condition requiring action or resolution is experienced as inadequate reported by Schuler and Jackson (1986). Edwards (1988) view about the stress is that A negative discrepancy between an individuals perceived state and desired state, provided that the presence of this discrepancy is considered important by the individual. Taylor (1992) reported about stress in the following words Demands made upon us [internally or externally] which we perceive as exceeding our adaptive resources. If we try to cope and that is ineffective this gives rise to stress. If this stress is prolonged then lasting psychological and physical damage may occur. Hereby demands we do mean that arise from the workload or work burden. Cox (1993) perception of stress is from te assumption that stressor are discreat, time limited and various events of the life requiring adjustments or adaptaion are utterly associated with stress. Holmes and Rahe (1967) ranked the potential stressfull events which may be work or non work related such as death of spouse, divorce, marriage (not all negative), fired from work marital reconciliation, retirement, bussiness readjustment, change in work responsibilities trouble with boss change in work condition. (Holmes and Rahe, 1967). Job stress is the sum total of factors experienced in relation to work which affects the psychosocial and physiological homeostasis of the worker. The individual factor is termed a stressor and stress is the individual workers reaction to stressors. Suggested by Weiman (1977). Beehr and OHara (1987) used stressor rather than stress to refer to causal factors becausefew people misinterpret stressor to mean the persons reaction. And uses strain to mean the state ofbeing stressed as evidenced by physiological, psychological or medical indices, Hans Selye (1951) report about The General Adaptation Syndrome [GAS] states that, in response to a stressor, an initial alarm reaction is followed by a stage of resistance in which resistance to the original stressor builds up but ability to resist new stressors is lowered. Eventually a stage of exhaustion sets in which ends in catastrophic inability to cope with any form of stress. 2.1 The human face of nursing, (2001): Commented on nursing profession; The female nurses faces challenging situations on daily basis. They face crying and dying patients and their task is stressfull , unrewarding and frightening. 2.2 Theimportance of the nursing profession is evident from the fact that the ILO has commissioned a manual with the title job stress in nursing profession to control and prevent the stress by Professor Cox (ILO 2001) 2.3 ILO (2001) reported. The occupation of nursing is related with challenges and demanding tasks. It is also full of overload, role conflit and role ambiguity. So, there is a great need to initiate a stress intervention and stress management program for nurses. 2.4 ILO(2001) presented that various research studies have tried to work out the effect of job stress on job performance and job satisfaction of nurses. It has been established that a negative relation exist between job stress and job performance and job satisfaction. 2.5 Health and Safety Executive (HSE 2001) research report with the title; the workplace stress epidemic; reveals that 53% of the employees have experienced a stress in the work place, International Stress Management Association (2001) found that one out of four working force have suffered due to stress related sickness. One out of five has suffered extreme stress in the work palce. 2.5 The HSE(2001) research found, a highky significant co relation between extreme stress and poor working condition. The employees have reported a wide rang of health problems and behavior problems, Professor Andy Smith have confirmed the fact that job stress is one of the most evident problem in the work enviroment. 2.6 The Bristol team(2000)has reported that 30% increase in job stress has been occurred in the work enviroment. The major problems indicated by job stress related illness are depression, anxiety, backach and musculo skeletal disorders. 2.7 Chartered Management Institute in 2001has found that long hours work load, working late at night has become a culture in the todays modern organization and as such are sources of job stress. 2.8 This study by the CMI and healthcare(2000), has reportd that 25% of the executive had gone on sick leave in the past one year due to job stress, 75% of the executive has reported that job stress was demaging their home life, health, performace at work and satisfaction level.. 2.9 The Health and Safety Executive (2001); research survey stated about sorces of stress and the circumstances which result in stress. The sources of stress are work overload, repetative work, role conflict, role ambiguity, danger, harasment and bullying, poor relation ship, in flexible shedule, lack of social support, confusion, lack of communication and poor working condition etc. 2.9.1Cary Cooper(1995), has argued that the trends in the american society are the major sources of job stress, such as working for long hours, down sizing and no contact culture. 2.10 According to Elizabeth Burtney (2002),who found the organization are full of stress and therefore we should focus on the stress intervention in the organization as wel as on stressed out indivisual. 2.11 Professor Stephen Palmer(2001)reported in his research study that stress in a universal thing. Everyone can be stressed and the threshold level of every body will be different. It depend on the person how he percieves a specific situation. Stress may be the result of the interactio between the person and enviroment. 2.11.1 Professor Cary Cooper (1995) has argued that insecurity in the organization stereo type attitude of the boss may be the major sources of stress. For employees it is necessary that they should have complete control on the job because of lack of control some time result in job stress. 2.11.2 Elizabeth Burtney of HEBS research(2004) reveals that stress in this modern world too carries a stigma in the closed style of management where the employees are expected to work hard and no concern is shown for their home life. The employees too never talk about the job stress. 2.12 Elizabeth Burtney of HEBS (2002)reported.That every job has some stress and the most stressful job is that where there is the element of change. Some professions such as health care education, games, and sports are highly stressful and risky. 2.13 Professor Cary Cooper(1997) has found the most stressful jobs of todays world. These are security personnels, social organization, education the proffession of nursing, medical and dentistry, sports and games, acting, jornalism, transportation and resturants. 2.14 Professor Cooper (1997)has assessedthat 60% increase in the job stress level has been occurred. Further he has measured the intensity of job stress in various proffession. 2.15According to an article with the title, Job stress and job satisfaction of employees in German radiotherapy (2001), which concludes that the greatest source of job stress stemmed from underpayment, crying patients,keeping patients fit and living,long hours, role conflict etc. Physicians and nurses showed a significantly higher stress level on scales such as structural conditions and particularly compassion than radiographers and physicists. Finally, rating of job stress and satisfaction depends significantly on the age group, gender, experience and the hospital. 2.16 K. CHANDRAIAH et. al. (1990) research study with title;Occupational Stress and Job Satisfaction among Managers, states;Individuals under excessive stress tend to find their jobs less satisfying. Some of their intrinsic or extrinsic needs may be thwarted or not met sufficiently.Corroborating many studies in the literature (Hollingworth et. al. 1988; Keller, 1975), the findingsof the present study also reveal the same. The subjects with lower job satisfaction were found to experience more stress in the form of overload,role ambiguity, role conflict, under participation, powerlessness and low status compared to those with higher job satisfaction. Age, therefore, was found to be of importance in these study findings. The results of the study reiteratethe significance of demands at each career development level as pointed out by Hallingworth.And the individuals encounter crisis at each developmental stage as hypothesized by Erickson.Significantly decreasing stress and increasing job satisfaction with increasing age was found among the managers and these confirm the importance of the developmental process. 2.17 An Empirical Study (1999) with title, Effect of Job Stress reported that; job stress is one of the vital issues in the organisation. It has been established that a negative relation exist between job stress and job performance, job stress and job satisfaction. 2.18 This review with title factors influencing stress and job satisfaction(2001): shows that various elements effect stress level and job satisfaction. These elements are leadership, quality control, relation between doctor and nurse. It has been established that a negative relationship exists between leadership, stress and job satisfaction. Although a positive relationship between clinical leadership and nurses job satisfaction was found, the association between clinical leadership and quality of inter-professional collaboration is unclear. The association between these variables and job satisfaction is positive but tenuous. In addition, a positive but weak relationship was revealed between the clinical leadership and the quality of relationships amongst nurses. Organisational issues, lack of nursing staff and patient care were found to be related to ward type mental health nurses stress emerged as mediating variables between stress and job satisfaction. 2.19 Beatrice et. al. (2002) has found that the higher is the demand on job the higher will be the stress and demanding job negatively affect the health of the nurses and result in deterioration of general health. 2.20 Center for Organizational Health and Development(2002) researched on job related stress in nursing:The research appears to support the view that, together, factors inherent in the nursing role and in the organizational culture within which the nurse works are as important a determinant of the experience of stress by nurses as the type of nursing pursued. Stress in nursing reflects the overall complexity of the nurses role, rather than any particular aspects of their individual tasks. Different nursing groups report similar levels of stress, the profile of stressors associated with those similar levels differed somewhat between groups. However, the inter-group differences reported in those studies and others are not sufficient to argue for the separate treatment of the various nurse groups which exist in hospitals. Therefore, while strategies forstress management needs to be tailored to the generic group, hospital-based nurses, they do not need to be further tailored to distingui sh between different types of hospital-based nurses. 2.21 HSE(1995) research study entitled health effects of stress in nursing states that job stress negatively effect quality of nurses work it results in creating minor psychiatric morbidity, physical illness and a lot of other health related diseases. It also increases the musculo skeletal disorder and depression. Nurses are amongst those groups of profession which reported a higher level of stress. 2.22 The study here is of Kaohsiung City government employees, china human resource management deptt (2000), entitled job stress relation with social support and job performance.It has been proved in the above research study that there is great relevance between job stress and job performance. job stress is inversly propotional to job performance. Further social support has a great impact on level of job stress. Greater social support results in the reduction of stress level and hence increases the perfromance of the employees. The report also indicated that female employees feel more stressed as compared to male employees (Bheer 2000). 2.23 Ms santha et. al. (2003) research report has presented that the stress level of the employees has various effects on the employees as well as on the organization. Due to stress the employee may give more absenteeism, accidents, high turnover rate and impaired descion. Upto some extent stress may be a good thing. It gives the push and motivation to the employee. But extreme stress is harmful. It may result in poor performance and yet productivity of the employees is reduced. 2.24 NIOSH (1999) reported that; 40% of workers say their job is extremely stressfull. 26% of workers report burnout during working hours. 2.25 Davids and Theresas(1999)have reported that 25% of the employees have considered there job stressful, 75% of the employees say that the task is the modern organisation is more stressful than earlier. Job stress may give a lot of problems during the work and it is attached with health problems etc. 2.26 NIOSH (2001) model of job stress is self explanatory; STRESSFUL JOB CONDITION=RISK OF INJURY ILLNESS. (Individual/situation factor apply) 2.27 The NIOSH (1999) research study on gender and job stress finds that sex descrimination and role conflict and role ambiguity and family demand may have more severe effect on female employees. Stress can be reduced in the organisation by introducing a change in the workplace. It may result in the reduction of stress levels for both workers male and females. The organization should promote family friendly policiy, discourge sex descrimination. 2.28 The research study with the title Women in Construction has reported that women in the construction industry have complaints of frequent harasment isolation and abuses by her co workers. The turn over of the female workers in the construction industry is higher as compared to others. Female labours in this industry are always at higher risk due to lack of safety measures and trainings. 2.29 In the research study by NIOSH (1999) of females workers in the internal revencue service (IRS), which states that musculoskeletal discomfort can be reduced to a great extent if periodic rest is provided to the worker during working hours. It may result in higer job performance. 2.30 NIOSH (2001) has presented in a survey that 60% of the woman workers have reported that stress is a great problem for them. They have cited that the following are the major sources of stress during job for females employees, role conflict and role ambiguity, poor relationship with other workers, burden of work, rush poor working enviroment, monotonus and repetitive work, lack of control over job, demands etc. 2.31 Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (2001) indicated that in the current era the stress related expenditure on employees is 50% higher than the early period. 2.32Encyclopaedia of Occupational Safety and Health(2001)states that high demanding jobs enhances the risk of cardiovascular diseases, musculoskeletal disorders, psychological problems, injuries at work, suicide, cancer, ulcer and impaired immune function. 2.33 NIOSH(2001) research report on job stress health and productivity states that job stress has inverse relation with productivity and it negatively affect the health of the employees. Stressful working condition results in poor health of the employees. Job stress increases absenteeism, tardiness, higher turnover and poor health. 2.34 Journal of Applied Psychology (2001)reseacrh report with the title Stress Prevention and Job Performance states that effect of intervention programe on job stress is very encouraging. The organization should educate employee on job stress, inform the employees regarding policies of the organization, how to reduce job stress and initiate employees support program. Stress prevention program encourage employees and results in enhanced production. 2.35 NIOSH (2000)has reported thaton average employees remain off the job for alost 20 days due to job stress, so job stress results in increased absenteeism. 2.36 The report by national insurance company 1992 enitiled employee burnout states that job stress directly propotional to burn out. Employees stress level should be reduced to avoid employees burn out. In the research study by the national insurance company that female workers feel more stressed than male workers. The chances of burnout and physical sickness related to job stress are more among female workers. The reason may be that the women are paid less than male workers. 2.37 European Agency (2001) research report has mentioned the following details which may be considered at the cost of Each year millions of working days are lost due to job stress. The cost of job stress in term of money is in millions of dollars. 2.38 Many studies have tried to determine the posible positive relationship between job stress and violance at work drug use. One study has established the fact that job stress creates negative indivisuals and has negative effect on the organization. The workers who experienced job stress start using drugs and alcohol and tobacco to reduce there tension, so job stress is one of the reason for drinking in the workers ILO (2001). 2.39 University of utara(2004), Malaysia, school of accounting, report on job stress among professional accountants working in selected public firms, a Malaysia case, establish and extends that job stressors faced by workers during job includes workload, role conflict, role ambiguity, lack of job autonomy and lack of job control. 2.40 A research report in Saudi Medical Journal (2003)titledJob satisfaction and organizationalcommitment states that female nurses are more satisfied and contented in the public sector hospital, the study further reveals that satisfied nurses provide higher output as compared to less satisfied nurses. The other factor for higher production from nurses is there comittment toward job. 2.41 A report in journal of health (2003) with title stress and suicide in nurses revealed that the relation between stress and suicide remained U shaped.when the job stress and home stress are combined, five fold increase in risk of suicide among women occurs.risk of suicide among high stress women is more compare to low stress experience by women. 2.42 School of Health Science (2002),Blekinge Institute of Technology Karlskrona,Sweden entitled job stress of nurses concludes that stress contains amongst other the element of moral. There is shortage of nurses in the health care and organisational structure too impedes nursing performance to avoid the negative consequences of stress for nurses moral support is required. In ICU stress and complex situation are common for all nurses, the stress implication are sometime ethical issues, morbidity and burn out, the report revealed. 2.43 Queensland University of Technology(2002), thesis with the title The influence of work stress and work support on burnout in public hospital nurses States that female nurses with high level of stress and little support have experience high rate of burnout. Job stressors were the main predictors of Emotional Exhaustion, Conflict. Changes in the objective conditions at work have had major implications for nurses subjective experiences of work, with increasing numbers of nurses feeling stressed and as a consequence, are opting to work part-time or leave the profession 2.44 HSJ HEALTH SCIENCE JOURNAL(2005), REPORT CARRYING THE TITLE job stress and job satisfactionshows that a strong negative relationship was found between clinical leadership, inter-professional collaboration, and stress and job satisfaction. Although a positive relationship between clinical leadership and nurses job satisfaction was found, the association between clinical leadership and quality of inter-professional collaboration is unclear. The association between these variables and job satisfaction is positive but tenuous. In addition, a positive but weak relationship was revealed between the clinical leadership and the quality of relationships amongst nurses. Organisational issues, lack of nursing staff and patient care were found to be related to ward type mental health nurses stress emerged as mediating variables between stress and job satisfaction. 2.45 A research study by Deptt of medicine(2006). University of Ottawa, enitiled, job stress corelation with job satisfaction and burn outThe findings are that medical staff frequently faces burn out due to high level of job stress. The turn over rate amongst the highly stressed workers are very high. The problem of burnout is common amongst the staff of cancer unit. 2.46 A research paper by School of Health Care Practice 2006, Anglia Polytechnic University, Chelmsford, Essex(2009), UK,entitled Workplace stress in nursing finds that workload, management style, professional conflict and emotional cost of caring and leadership style, lack of reward and shift working are the main sources of stress for nurses for many years. Stress management programe should concentrate on stress prevention as well as how organization should takle this vital issue. 2.47 The Graduate College University of Wisconsin-Stout (2005), Research Paper with title OCCUPATIONAL STRESS IN MENTAL HEALTH COUNSELORS, concludes that,The mental healthcounselors involved in completing the survey instruments scored an average of2.57 on afive point scale, with past administrations of the Weiman Occupational Stress Scalehaving yielded a baseline score of 2.25. The mental health counselors in this study scoredon average 13% higher than the calculated WOSS baseline. Employees in publiclyfunded institutions (Winnebago Mental Health) experience greater perceived work stressthan those counselors in privately funded clinics. 2.48 Research studyconducted by Carol Brewer(2000)mentioned that new comers in the profession of nursing confront enhanced stress as compared to existing lot .New nurses have reported the following are the major sources of job stress for them; complex jobs ,long hours,overtimes frequently, role conflict, role ambiguity, dangerous working conditions,abuses, inadequate resources and strain. 2.49An Exploratorystudy(2001) to dig out the job stressors conducted in Tiawan on nurses concludes that changes in the todays organizations,role conflict, role ambiguity,lack of social support,working environment in the hospital, demanding job of nurses are the main stressors for nurses. 2.50 European Journal(2005) of Social Sciences, reportentitled Link between Job Stress and Job Satisfaction signify that job stress and job satisfaction are invrsely corelated. According to Stamps Piedmonte (1986) job satisfaction has been found significant relationship with job stress. One study of general practitioners in England identified four job stressors that were predictive of job dissatisfaction (Cooper, et al., 1989). In other study, Vinokur-Kaplan (1991) stated that organization factors such as workload and working condition were negatively related with job satisfaction. Fletcher Payne (1980) identified that a lack of satisfaction can be a source of stress, while high satisfaction can alleviate the effects of stress. This study reveals that, both of job stress and job satisfaction were found to be interrelated. The study of Landsbergis (1988) and Terry et al. (1993) showed that high levels of work stress are associated with low levels of job satisfaction. Moreover, Cummi ns (1990) have emphasized that job stressors are predictive of job dissatisfaction and greater propensity to leave the organization. Sheena et al. (2005) studied in UK found that there are some occupations that are reporting worse than average scores on each of the factors such as physical health, psychological well-being, and job satisfaction. The relationship between variables can be very important to academician. If a definite link exists between two variables, it could be possible for a academician to provide intervention in order to increase the level of one of the variables in hope that the intervention will also improve the other variable as well (Koslowsky, et al., 1995). 2.51 A Study of Job Stress and Job Satisfaction among UniversityStaff in Malaysia, a research article(2007)investigates what corelation exists between job stress and job satisfaction? Inverse relationship exists between job stress and job satisfaction. The stressors that have been taken for research contain leadership style and interference by management, relationship with peers, work burden, role ambiguity, and role conflict. 2.52Faculty of Education (2001), University of Ibadan, article entitledEffects of Job Stress states that stress has negative effect on health, physical and mental, work behaviour,and performance,satisfaction level. 2.53 Heavy workloads, difficult students and lack of resources are stressing out Australian teachers (1999). Many also experience stress from increasing violence and bullying. In one recent year, 274 teachers in Victoria were either assaulted or threatened by students and another 70 were attacked by colleagues. Over the past five years , 910 teachers in Victoria and 1150 teachers in New South Wales have filed worker compensation claims for anxiety,depression,nervous breakdown and other stress related symptom. Union leaders say these figures are just the tip of the iceberg: Teacher are very reluctant to proceed with those claims because it just adds another problem and additional stress, explains Australian education union president John Gregory Teaching in Australia may be stressful, but the profession seems to be under siege in the Uk , Janice Howell a primary school teacher in Newport (South Wales)is one of the casualties. She initially had the assistance of an English language tea cher but that teacher took long-term leave with no replacement. Unable to cope with 28 kids, 11 of them with learning or behavioral difficulties, Howell had a nervous breakdown. After recovering several months later, Howell complained to the school about the intolerable stress. Rather than providing support, the school added two more troubled kids to Howells class. One student, new to Wales, ran away one morning and was seen playing near dangerous mudflats. Although he was taken home safely, no one told Howell until the end of the day. This led to Howells second breakdown, ending her career. From being a confident, well adjusted teacher who enjoyed her job I became depressed and dysfunctional, says Howell for the first time in my life I did hate to go to work. It got to the stage that I was physically unable to enter the classroom. 2.54 Nebuo Miuro (1999)quoted in the book about stress that employees are under a lot of pressure from his employer to get a new restaurant ready for its launch. The interiors fitter from Tokyo worked late, sometimes until 4.30 in the morning. After one such marathon, Miuro caught a few hour sleep, then return for another long day. But he didnt get very far. The 47 year old suddenly took ill and keeled over while picking up his hammer and nails. He died a week later. The corners verdict was that Miuro died of Karoshi_death by overwork. Karoshi accounts for nearly 10000 deaths each year in Japan. Research indicates that long work hours cause an unhealthy lifestyle such as smoking, poor eating habits, lack of physical exercise and sleeplessness. This result in weight gain, which, along with stressful working conditions, damages the cardiovascular system and leads to strokes and heart attacks. Karoshi came to the public spotlight in the 1970s when Japans economy was booming, but the cou ntrys current recession is making matters worse.companies are laying off employees and loading the extra work onto those who remain. Performance based expectations are replacing life qtime employment guarantees, putting further pressure on employees to work long hours. Many also blame Japans samurai spirit culture which idolizes long work hours as the ultimate symbol of company loyalty and personal fortitude. Being exhausted is considered a virtue explains a Japanese psychiatrist. So far, only 17 percent of Japanese companies offer over stressed employees some form of counseling. However the Japanese Government has launched an advertising campaign encouraging people to call a Karoshi hotline for anonymous help. The families of deceased workaholics, including Nobuo Mauros relatives are also taking action by suing the employers for lack of due care. 2.55 A report (2001) regarding working out causes of burn out among managers and nurses in Canada concluded that job stress is positively corelated to burn out.The corelation was analysed from various perspective that is emotional exhaustion, lack of accomplishment and depersonalization. Job stress was significantly correlated with overall burnout. In the nursing sample, job stress was also significantly correlated with psychosomatic health problems and organizational commitment. Moderated multiple regressions only marginally supported the role of gender as a moderator of stress-burnout relationship. 2.56 A research article (2001) relating to job stress and gender indicate that there are statistically significant differences in the stress levels of employees based on their gender. With females experience more stress then male. And physical conditions are considered as a most stressful factor for females. Male experiences less stress with physical conditions. Women were found to experience more stress then male. They are more affected by physical conditions such as noise, lightning etc. 2.57 Journal of Managerial Psychology(2006), research report on stress and various enterprizes found that workers in the private s experiernce more stress than the workers in public sector organizations.According to this study the stressors in organization are no knowledge about job, lack of appreciation, lack of evaluation.saudi workers feel extreme stress as compared to others such as arabs,asiana,Europeans,Americans.the stress level of workers is also influenced by educational levels of workers. 2.58 An article on Occupational stress and depression in Korean employees (2001): States that lack of social support,complex and irritating work environment are the prominent elements, which results in depression in korean employees. 2.59 Department of Psychology Applied Psychology research study (2008) ,University of the Punjab,entitled OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AND JOB PERFORMANCE indicated that heavy load of work/burden,monotonous work, lack of support from co-workers are major stressors in work set up. Further,it is reported that job stress affect performance of employees. 2.60 In reseach study about Occupational Stress and Employee Control (1992), psychologists has established that job stress is inversly proportional to control over work.Better control over job may results in greater productivity and inflate motivation.entire control is directly related to better health ,output morale. It enhances decision making power of employees and they can easily manage work burden. Psychologists have discovered that demanding tasks requires better control on job. Lack of control result in poor health for employeed. 2.61 Colegio Oficial de Psic.logos (2007) s article has found that stressors in work set up are corelated with poor health. The study reveals that job of psychologist is very stressful. In this comparitive reseach report psychiatrist feel less stress as compared to their colleagues. 2.62 A reprt presented by European Commission (2007), states that job stress negatively affects 40 million employees in Europe alone. 20 billion annually is lost due job stress. It is now established that job stress is big hurdles in better performance and high in cost, Health related problems are also associated with job stress. 2.63AReport on how job stress affects health and output ofNurses in Public Hospitals (2006), Department of Social Work, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria, established that job stress has significant effect on physical and mental health of the nurses. It also established that there was a significantdifference in personal and work behaviour of highly stressed nurses and less stressed nurses. Based on these findings,it was recommended that the government (Federal or State) and Hospital Management Boards should improve the welfare of the nurses. It was also recommended that their morale should be boosted by involving them in policy or decision-making concerning their welfare or care of their patients. Their salary should be reviewed and that they should be promoted as at when due. (Research study by University of Ibadan, Nigeria 2006). 2.64 Leo Sin and Danny Cheng (2004) identified six sources of job stress; job-assigned (overload) responsibility (role clarity) work/organizational climates; career; job value conflict; and role ambiguity. These not only overlap with the sources of stress, but also lead to many of the same consequences. Managers, who reported high jobs-assigned stress, role ambiguity stress and work organizational culture stress, also reported higher levels of psychological symptoms such as restlessness and forgetfulness. Those reporting high job-assigned and job value conflict stress reported higher level of psychosomatic symptoms such as headaches, poor appetite and trouble in getting to sleep. Continuing the theme of interrole conflict, research by Aryee at the university of Singapore suggest that family and work roles and stressors impact on perceived work-family conflict and several outcome; job and life satisfaction, turnover intent and perceived work quality. He fond that for a group of married, professional Asian women, work-home conflict increase when they experience overload, high work load , low autonomy and high commitment to family roles. Following through to the consequences of role stress, Aryee found that, in all cases, individual reported lower levels of job satisfaction. (212) More and more we are seeing dual career couples in the work place. As their number increases, so we must ask what the impact of juggling several roles is on their work and home lives. Do problems at work spill over into home life? Do family problems affect our working life? In recent years, the issue of role and mood-spill over has received a lot of researches attention. Research shows that work affects our home lives far more frequently then our home lives impact on work. When work-family conflict exist, individual report more depression, job dissatisfaction, higher cholesterol levels and more somatic complaints (e.g. headaches, insomnia and sweaty palms). What impact does spill over have? When we feel bad do we carry those negative feelings between home and work? Is the same true for pleasant feelings? And how does our involvement either with home or work influence the spill-over process? First research shows that negative mood all spill over far more then positive moods. If we leave work feeling distress, we will carry that mood home with us; however if we leave work feeling elated or calm, it will have little impact on how we feel at home. And this affect is far stronger for women then men. Interestingly the more involved individual are in their jobs, the less mood spill over we see. Over all research shows that work interferes with family far more than family interfere with work, Micheal O Driscoll, at Waikato Universities, together with Cary cooper used a critical incident analysis to determine what stressors are faced by New Zeeland workers and how they respond. According to their survey, the three most important sources of stress are organizational conflict, work over load and a lack of resources. 2.65 Fiona (2003) desribes in her book about a training co found that one in three people complained that technology at work contributes directly to rising stress levels. Referring to this as digital depression the managing director noted how he had recently come across a person who had 19400 emails in his inbox (hilpern 2003) Work stress is thought to contribute to nightmares about killing the boss. Stress at work is contributing to regular nightmares for one in two adults (Womack 2003). Research in Britain found that 51 per cent of respondents suffered work related nightmares at least once a week with the figure rising to 61 percent among Londoners. A row with the boss was the most common dream followed by arriving late for meeting. Worryingly 7 per cent confessed to dreams where they wanted to murder the boss. Over work can lead to death. There have been reports in the newspaper recently of deaths due to over work in Japan. Death due to this rose to 317 in 203 doubling the previous record of 147 cent in 2002. Doctors, factory workers, and taxi driver are the worst affected. (Fiona m.wilson) 2.66 According to a recent study by NIOSH,(2002) reported by Stephen which states that more than half the working people in the united state comsider stress as an irritant in their lives. This is more than double the percentage reported the early 1990s. The people who have experienced stress related illness tripled between 1999 and 2002. In an annual survey released in 2002, 29 per cent of respondents faced severe stress during job in 6 year history. The American institute of stress estimates that stress related- absenteeism, burnout, mental health problems-cost American business approximately $300 bilion a year. The European Community officially dubbed stresses the second biggest occupational health problem facing employers in Europe. (Stephen 2002). 2.67 Murraybruce, (1983, 1990), a specialist in occupational medicine described the todays reaction to stress in the following terms: the heart and breathing rates increased, blood pressure goes up, sweating increases, muscles get tense, the eyes widen, and there is heightened alertness. Tense muscles caused headache, backaches, shoulder and back pain. Clenched hands, clenched jaws, and hunched shoulders along with frowning and fidgeting, figure `tremor, and the mopping of a sweaty brow. An anxious person has butterflies or churning in the stomach, a dry mouth, weak legs, nausea, a thumping heart, breathlessness and a feeling of light-headedness. Course participation at a management college reported on symptoms of stress that they had previously experienced. These included dim or fizzy vision, some chest pain, unusual heart beats, occasional sleep difficulties, frequent episodes of irritability, tiredness, or depression (this was by far the most frequent), and periods in which their work performance was impaired for a few days(melhuish, 1977) Eugene Mckenna (2000), the following is what a 37-years old teacher and head of department at a large comprehensive school, who is also a mother of two children, was reported as having said about her plight. I am exhausted all the time; I do not sleep very well and when I wake up at night I panic about work; I am losing weight; eczema flares up when the pressure increased; frequently I feel guilty because I do not see enough of my children; I over-react when little things go wrong; recently I would not stop crying at weekends; and my marriage would have collapsed by now if I had not such an understanding husband. I cannot go to senior management because it would sound like I cannot cope, and with a new head in the school I feel under even more pressure to perform. I realize that for th sake of my health and marriage, something will have to change. In this case the acute pressure or distress stems from trying to cope with a demanding job coupled with work in the home. 2.68 Stress in different occupations by Eugene Mckenna (2000) analysis of mortality due to atherosclerotic heart disease among U.S males by occupational classification in the age range 20-64 shows that teachers fare better than lawyers, medical practitioners, estate agents, and insurance agents (guralnick, 1963a, 1963b, 1963c). However, general practitioners are more vulnerable to heart disease than are other physicians (morris, heady, and barley, 1952) As to suicide rates, those connected with law enforcement had higher mortality rates then those that administering the law, though individual who exposed to life-threatening situation suffer less stress hen those who are not. Among medical and related personnel, practitioners with above average suicide rates are dentists and psychiatrists. Dentists are said to experience significant preside form the demands of developing their practice. The dentist prone to stress tends to be anxiety prone and more easily upset when confronted with excessive administrative duties and when faced with too little work because of a preoccupation with building and sustaining the practice. Dentists with raised blood pressure perceived, to some extent, their image as inflictions of pain. They also experienced stress from their job interfering with their personal life. 2.69 The Epidemic of the Eighties reported in Time Magazine (1983) considered job stress in the organization is a big problem for workers it negatively effect the health of the workers. The magazine further reported that the situation has become worsened and the workers in the modern America experience more stress than the earlier workers. 2.70 NIOSH (2004) model on STRESS AND PRODUCTIVITY. The below model clearly exhibit the relation between job stress productivity. LOW JOB STRESS = HIGHY PRODUCTIVITY 2.71 stress and productivity (NIOSH 2004)about job stress and productivity NIOSH (2004) presented the folowing model, HIGHY JOB STRESS = LOW PRODUCTIVITY The above model is self explanatory 2.72 The article titled, Job Stress among Teachers Engaged in Nursing(2006) concludesthat job stressors among teachers of nurses are work load and job control,lack of reward, conflict,inter personal relations and qualitative load of work among women. 2.72.1 Asurvey in 2002,titled Occupational Stress in Australian Universities by Anthoy H.(2002) reveals psychological strain, in addition to various work place factors such as job insecurity, job satisfaction, work pressure, and work-home conflict, was highly significantly corelated with a number of stress related health symptoms experienced by staff (eg backache and difficulties in sleeping, headaches, neck pain, viral and cold infections etc). These symptoms were in turn found to be significantly correlated with the number of stress-related medical conditions reported by staff, such as , hypertension , migraines and coronary heart disease. 2.73 Research findings of WHO(2005), research paper indicate the most stress ful type of work is that where demands and pressure are not matched with skill of employees and where there is no oppurtunity, control and support from others. 2.73.1 WHO (2005) report etitled Stress experienced at work can be divided into two groups, work content and work context. The research report of WHO (2005) entitled stress and work hazards states that the hazard at work can be divided into two groups Work contents and Work context, work contents consist of job monotony, workload, work pace, time pressure, working hours, strict or inflexible time un social system badly designd shift system, control process and participation. Work context contain carier development, job status, compensation, insecurity, lack of promtion, low social values, piece rate payment system, unclear and unfair perofmance evalutaion system, over or under skilled for job, role in organisation, interpersonal relationship, organisational culture, work life balance etc. 2.74 According to a research study (2001) on nurses in Ankara Turkey entitled effect of pyhsical enviroment on the stress levels of nurses, states and identify that education level and employment of the nurses are significantly related with the stress levels of hemodylsis nurses. Nurses marital status, occupational seniority, years of working, number of children, age, employment status, husbands occupation and husband educational level are highly significantly co related with their stress level. According to Hans Selye GAS model; Selye (1982) model represent that The General Adaptation Syndrome assumes that each individual will react to a stressful situation in a certain way. It fails to take into account the individuals ability to interpret a threat as a source of pressure and act to change his situation. This ability is considered as coping or adaptation. Model by Williams (1994) exhibits; SOURCESOFSTRESS+COPINGBEHAVIOUR=PERSONALITY+EFFECTS Stress process In this model, the individuals personality attributes, has a very significant influence on the potentiality both of the sources of stress and of the coping behaviours. Cox (1993) emphasises the importance of the feedback loop in models of this kind: If person realise that they are failing to cope with the demands of a task, and experience concern about that failure because it is important, then this is a stress scenario. Stress reduces the performance and as well ability of the person. Cox (1993) indicated two important sources of stress arising from the role pf person in the enterprise that is role ambiguity and role conflict. When a worker has insufficient information about his work, role ambiguity occurs and when indivisual is compell to perform a task in conflict with the values role conflict occurs. Role conflict and ambiguity positively co related with absenteeism, leaving the job, psychological and physiological strain, tension and fatigue. Role conflict and ambiguity is negatively co related with organizational commitment, job involvment, performance, descion making, tolerance, satisfaction, physical with drawal and reported influence. Poorrelations with colleagues, supervisors and subordinates at work have been identified as important risk factors for stress-related problems indicated by Sauter, Murphy and Hurrell (1992). Cox and Griffiths (1995) identify the characteristics of situations experienced as stressful, one of which is individuals are relatively isolated and receive little support from colleagues, supervisors, friends or family (Cox and Griffiths 1995). Ganster (1986) research study found a strong correlation between a lack of social support, especially from a supervisor, and dissatisfaction with work. It clearly show that social support is a significant element in the organization which de enhance the level of stress and increase the level of satisfaction. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) reported in there research study that employees will have better health and moral and satisfaction and performace if they get social support when required. French, Caplan and van Harrisons (1982) research study indicate that some job is assignement characteristics are associated with stress. These characteristics may be too little or too much work, too complex job, more little responsibilities, work burden, long hours survices and greater education needed for that specific job. These characteristics produce discrepancies between indivisual and his assignment so here it means that job stress may be the co relation between job and person (French, Caplan and van Harrison, 1982). Physical and environmental factors causing stress. Physical and environmental factors can have an effect on the stress experienced by a person in the workplace. Examples are lighting, ventilation, noise, vibration, chemicals, dust, badly designed machinery and equipment, and badly designed premises.(The London Hazards Centre 1994). Burke (1988) reports the most frequently mentioned environmental stressors as including density and crowding, lack of privacy, high noise levels, vibrations and/or sound waves, temperature extremes, air movement and background colour and illumination. Stress may affect health Teasdale and McKeown, (1994) reports that Stress itself is not an illness, rather it is a state. However it is a very powerful cause of illness. Long-term excessive stress is known to lead to serious health problems The relationship between stress/strain and a variety of adverse physical and psychological health conditions is well-established. Stress may affect health. At the same time, however, a state of ill health can act as a significant source of stress, and may also sensitise individuals to other sources of stress by reducing their ability to cope. Within these limits, the common assumption of a relationship between the experience of stress and poor health appears justified. Russek and Zohman (1958) compared young [25-40] CHD patients with a healthy control group and found that whilst only 20% of the control group reported prolonged stress related to work, 91% of the CHD patients did so. The patients also reported heavy workloads, with 46% working more than 60 hours per week and 20% doing two jobs. 20% reported frustration, discontent, insecurity or inadequacies in relation to their jobs. Breslau and Buell (1960) also found a correlation between long working hours and CHD. In a study of younger [under 45] workers in light industry those working more than 48 hours per week had double the risk of death from CHD than similar workers working less than 40 hours per week. Weiman (1977) reports a study [carried out in 1974] of 1540 officers of a large financial institution who were subjects of periodic health checks, including a questionnaire on occupational stress. Weiman found that: There is a significantly higher incidence of disease when particular stressors are operating. It is also evident that disease/risk occurs more frequently when workers are either under-stimulated or over-stimulated, In review of the research on the associations between occupational stress and CHD, Landsbergis (1993) found that twelve out of fourteen studies reviewed showed a clear link. He estimated that 23% of CHD deaths in the US were potentially preventable if the stress levels in the worst jobs were reduced to average levels. An investigation by the Post Office occupational health service (IRS, 1994) found that psychological problems were the second most common reason for early retirement on health grounds [after orthopaedic injury]. The pressure group The London Hazards Centre (LHC, 1994) list an array of outcomes of working excessive hours, including physical and psychological fatigue, increased risk of heart disease, sleep difficulties, sexual disorders, gastric disturbances, headaches, backaches, dizziness, weight loss, apathy, depression, disorganisation, feelings of incapability, irritability, intolerance, boredom and cynicism. The most extreme consequence is sudden death. Cranwell-Ward (1995) reports that death from overwork [karoshi in Japanese] has been officially registered as a fatal illness in Japan since 1989, and goes onin 1990 the labour ministry received 777 applications for compensation because of karoshi. A more common outcome of stress/strain is an increase in accident rates at work (LHC, 1994). Carter and Corlett (1981), in a review of the literature on mental health and involvement in accidents, reported that the mental state of the operator, whether he is fatigued or over-aroused, alert or distracted, has been the most frequently suggested reason for accident-causation during shiftwork. Cartwright et al (1993) studied accidents involving company car drivers from three subsidiaries of a major company, and related them to stress levels. They found the highest rates in the subsidiary which also returned higher levels of occupational stress, poorer physical health, poorer mental health and lower job satisfaction. They concluded thatthe significantly higher levels of occupational stress within [the subsidiary with the highest accident rate] indicate that stress is playing a major role in predicting accident rates. Prolonged exposure to stress can result in the phenomenon of burnout, defined as exhaustion, underachievement, and the inability to handle personal relationships (LHC, 1994), Cox (1993) identifies from the literature several effects of stress which he believes may be of direct concern to organisations. Some of these, such as reduced availability for work involving high turnover, absenteeism and poor time keeping he classifies as essentially escape strategies. Others involve what is described as presenteeism people continue to report for work but their performance and involvement is poor. Cox suggests that this may result in impaired work performance and productivity, with consequent increases in client complaints. Fingret (1994) also emphasises the damage caused to organisations by presenteeism, claiming that occupational health practitioners and psychologists are well aware of significant levels of stress and psychological maladjustment which have not resulted in significant sickness absence. Fingret argues that this may be even more damaging to business efficiency that the absences which though carrying physical illness labels, are in fact related to l ack of mental well-being. Cooper (1994) refers to the huge costs of people turning up to work who are so distressed by their jobs or some aspect of the organizational climate that they contribute little, if anything, to their work. Where employees are required to exercise creativity and initiative these effects may be even more pronounced. Talbot, Cooper and Barrow (1992) studied 202 managers [a sub-set of a wider study involving 1083 respondents, all from one organisation]. They found significant negative correlations between stress and the potential for creativity, although they were unable to ascribe a causal relationship between stress and creativity because both may be an outcome of something else. Karasek and Theorell (1990) hypothesise that accumulated level of unresolved strain [or anxiety level] appears to restrict a persons ability to learn solutions to new problems. The literature on burnout has also demonstrated that prolonged job stress is associated with decline in initiatives at work. Task performance is also found to be impaired when stress exceeds an individuals tolerance level. Selye (1982) maintains that under stress people often perform at higher levels, but if the stress continues exhaustion sets in and leads to a range of problems [diseases of adaptation]. (Selye 1982)